History of the Mughal Empire

[ctwaterman]

With Great Thanks to Miketr for writting this up.
The foundation for the Mughal Empire was established around the early 1500s by the Timurid prince Babur, when he took control of the Doab and eastern regions of Khorasan controlling the fertile Sindh region and the lower valley of the Indus River.  In 1526, Babur defeated the last of the Delhi Sultans, Ibrahim Shah Lodi, at the First Battle of Panipat. The early military successes of the Turks, achieved by an army much smaller than its opponents, have been attributed to their cohesion, mobility, horse-mounted archers, and use of artillery.

Babur's son Humayun succeeded him in 1530 but suffered major reversals at the hands of the Pashtun Sher Shah Suri and effectively lost most of the fledgling empire before it could grow beyond a minor regional state. From 1540 Humayun became a ruler in exile, reaching the Court of the Safavid ruler in 1542 while his forces still controlled some fortresses and small regions. But when the Pashtuns fell into disarray with the death of Sher Shah Suri, Humayun returned with a mixed army, raised more troops and managed to re-conquer Delhi in 1555.

The resurgent Humayun then conquered the central plateau around Delhi, but months later died in an accident, leaving the realm unsettled and in war. Akbar succeeded his father on 14 February 1556, while in the midst of a war against Sikandar Shah Suri for the throne of Delhi. The rump remnant began to grow, and then it grew considerably. He became known as Akbar the Great.  He investigated the production in a certain area and taxed inhabitants 1/5 of their agricultural produce. He also set up an efficient bureaucracy and was tolerant of religious differences which softened the resistance by the conquered. 

By the end of Akbar's reign, the Mughal Empire extended throughout north India and south of the Narmada River. Notable exceptions were Gondwana in central India, which paid tribute to the Mughals, Assam in the northeast and large parts of the Deccan. The area south of the Godavari river remained entirely out of the ambit of the Mughals. In 1600, Akbar's empire had a revenue of £17.5 million. By comparison, in 1800, the entire treasury of Glorious France totaled £16 million.

In October 1627, Shah Jahan, son of Baburids Emperor Jahangir succeeded to the throne, where he inherited a vast and rich empire in India. At mid-century this was perhaps the greatest empire in the world. Shah Jahan commissioned the famous Taj Mahal (1630–1653) in Agra as a tomb for his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Between 1636 and 1646, Shah Jahan sent out Mughal armies to defeat a rebellion in Ahmednagar, repulsing the Portuguese in Bengal, campaigned in Deccan, capturing the Rajput kingdoms of Baglana and Bundelkhand to the west and the northwest beyond the Khyber Pass.  Even though these campaigns aptly demonstrated Mughal military strength, they drained the imperial treasury. As the state became a huge military machine, causing the nobles and their contingents to multiply almost fourfold, the demands for revenue from the peasantry were greatly increased. Political unification and maintenance of law and order over wide areas encouraged the emergence of large centers of commerce and crafts — such as Lahore, Delhi, Agra, and Ahmadabad — linked by roads and waterways to distant places and ports.  Shah Jahan was deposed by one of his sons Aurangzeb, when he fell ill in 1658. 

Aurangzeb's reign ushered in the decline of the Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb, who in the latter half of his long rule assumed the title "Alamgir" or "world-seizer," was known for aggressively expanding the empire's frontiers and for his militant enforcement of orthodox Sunni Islam. During his reign, the Mughal empire reached its greatest extent (the Bijapur and Golconda Sultanates which had been reduced to vassaldom by Shah Jahan were formally annexed). Although he was an outstanding general and a rigorous administrator, Mughal fiscal and military standards declined as security and luxury increased. Land rather than cash became the usual means of remunerating high-ranking officials, and divisive tendencies in his large empire further undermined central authority.

In 1679 Aurangzeb re-imposed the hated jizyah tax on Hindus. Coming after a series of other taxes, and other discriminatory measures favoring Sunni Muslims, this action by the emperor, incited rebellion among Hindus and others in many parts of the empire--Jat, Sikh, and Rajput forces in the north and Maratha forces in the Deccan. The emperor managed to crush the rebellions in the north, but at a high cost to agricultural productivity and to the legitimacy of Mughal rule. Aurangzeb was compelled to move his headquarters to Daulatabad in the Deccan to mount a costly campaign against Maratha guerrilla fighters led by Shivaji, which lasted twenty-six-years until he died in 1707 at the age of ninety.

By 1700 the empire reached its peak with major parts of the Sub-continent, except for the North eastern states, the Sikh lands in the Punjab, the lands of the Marathas, areas in the south and most of Afghanistan under its domain, under the leadership of Aurangzeb Alamgir. Aurangzeb was the last of what are now referred to as the Great Turk kings.

When Aurangzeb died close to the age of ninety, there were seventeen legitimate claimants to the throne that included not only his sons but also his grandsons and great grandsons. This set off a 2 year war of succession that only ended when two brothers fought near Agra. Prince Muazzam prevailed and killed his brother Prince Azam Shah and assumed the title Bahadur Shah I or Shah Alam I.

Bahadur Shah I would rule the empire for just three years.  Bahadur Shah never abolished jizyah, but the effort to collect the tax became ineffectual.  Although the empire remained united, factionalism in the nobility reached a new height. However, he could do little to mitigate the damage already done by his father.  In 1712 Bahadur Shah died.   

Bahadur Shah's son Jahandar Shah succeeded after his death but almost at once faced a new rebellion by his brother Azim-ush-Shan. 11 months later a new revolt started by Jahandar's nephew Farrukhsiyar, the second son of Azim-ush-shan.  The emperor was defeated in the battle at Agra on 10th January 1713 by Farrukhsiyar, with the support of the Saiyid Brothers.  After a period of confinement Bahadur was put to death by strangulation.

The new emperor Farrukhsiyar ruled from 1713 to 1719 and had to deal with many rebellions.  The Maratha and Sikh factions created anarchy in the provinces while the Saiyid Brothers monopolized state power.  It was in 1717 that the emperor granted the French trading rights in Bengal.  The emperor was able to brutally suppress the Sikh uprising but was betrayed I the end.  In Deccan the Saiyid brothers colluded with the Marathas and attacked Delhi and using trickery and intrigue seized Farrukhsiyar in the Red Fort. The emperor was blinded and caged and later poisoned as well as stabbed to death.  The Saiyid brothers placed the emperor's first-cousin, Rafi Ul-Darjat on the throne.

What followed was another round of civil war in 1719-1720 with various claimants to the throne and Marathas were now constantly attacking Delhi.  Muhammad Shah 4th son of Bahadur Shah I ascended the throne at the age of seventeen with the help of the Saiyid Brothers.  The new emperor would rule till 1748 and is largely responsible for the survival of the empire.  While there were defeats such as the sack of Delhi by Nadir Shah the Persian Emperor in 1739 and the unchecked rebellion by the Marathas the Mughal Empire was stabilized in North West India. The Sikh rebellion was decisively defeated during Muhammad Shah's reign and order restored to the state bureaucracy; the later starting with the execution of the Saiyid brothers.   

A series of weak emperors followed Bahadur Shah to the throne after 1748 starting with Ahmad Shah Bahadur who was sickly for most of his reign and died in 1754, Alamgir II a man despite being 55 years old when he took the throne had no experience in either government or military reigned till 1759 and the puppet emperor Shah Jahan III who reigned for a few months.  It wasn't till the ascension of Shah Alaam II in 1759 that a strong emperor returned to the throne. 

From 1748 till 1759 the real power in the Mughal Empire was Wazir or Vizier Ghaziudin Khan Bahadur.  Ghaziudin was appointed paymaster general of the Empire in 1752.  So Ghaziudin became Emperor Ahmad's most important minister and the Wazir.  As the emperors health declined the real power passed to Ghaziudin, then he was able to conduct a coup in 1754 and imprison the sickly emperor.  The next two emperors were little more than well cared for prisoners of the powerful Wazir.

During this time period a number of conflicts threatened the empire.  A series of large raids were launched into the empire by an Afghani Lord, Ahmad Shah Abdali.  Ghaziudin defeated Abdali several times but this fighting badly distracted the Wazir and soon the Mughal position started to crumble.  A renewed war with the Marathas in 1756 led to Delhi's capture in 1759 and fighting occurred in Bengal.  Bengal an eastern territory where the power of the local governors or Nawab's long ruled the land in fact if not name had attempted to drive back rising French influence but was defeated in 1757.  After these reverses Alamgir attempted to assert his authority and remove Ghaziundin following these defeats but the Wazir's response was the murder the emperor and put the weakling Shah Jahan III in his place.  A revolt against Ghaziundin occurred, Shah Alaam II took the throne and the Wazir only escaped with his life by going on a pilgrimage to Mecca and never returning.   

Shah Alaam II who reigned 1759-1806 would see the permanent loss of the Marathas, Bengal and in the sunset years of his reign Gujarat but there would be other gains and further solidification of the state.  Alaam came to the throne as part of a revolt against Ghaziundin and his puppet emperor Jahan.  Alaam went to Bengal and other eastern provinces to attempt to rally support for the revolt and to attempt to drive back the French.  In the mean time Ghaziundin had to deal with the Marathas occupation of the central provinces and more Afghan raids.  Alaam was able to make a pact with the Marathas that saw their independence in name as well as fact and this cleared the way for Alaam's return to Delhi in 1761.  At which point Ghaziundin fled the empire.  The emperor attempted to drive the French out but a defeat at the Battle of Buxar in 1764 saw the end of the attempt and the lose Bengal. 

At peace with the French and the Marathas Alaam was free to focus on internal reforms and the Afghan threat.  The first focus of reform was the army and the formation of a professional core in the model of European armies to reinforce the levies of the princely state.  The first test of the new army was vs. a revolt of the Jats south of Delhi in 1768 and after a brief campaign brought the Jats to heal.  Alaam next attempted to reform the Empires Finances to assure an even flow of revenue to pay for the army.  Alaam appointed his general Mirza Najaf Khan to oversee the financial reforms of the Empire.  Mirza was able to achieve much between 1771 and 1776 but his efforts also triggered a revolt by the Sikh's and the Punjab was in flames.  The new army put down the revolt by decisively defeating the Sikh's at the battle of Muzaffargarh in 1778. 

With all internal threats resolved and the peace holding with the French and Marathas; Alaam invaded the Afghan lands in 1780.  Assembling a small but highly trained army at Peshawar the Mughal's entered the Khyber Pass and entered the Afghan lands.  Kabul was quickly taken and the subjugation of various afghan leaders were received but it was largely nominal.  At least it did greatly reduce raids from this quarter.  In 1782 the General and reformer Mirza Najaf Khan died depriving Alaam of his finest minister.

With Mirza dead Alaam wished to make his own mark as a general and Persia was his target.  In 1779 Shah Karim Khan Zand of Persia died and that nation was plunged into a bloody civil war.  Alaam assembled a mighty army and invaded Baluchistan a disputed region between Persia and Mughal Empire.  Baluchistan has many barren and dry regions and in the summer the area is noted for the heat.  Alaam was not the leader that Mirza was and appointed generals with questionable skills and he wanted his conquest to be a glorious tale for the ages.  So the army that was assembled unlike the one used to take Kabul had a huge number of horsemen and infantry levies instead of a largely professional core. Between 1782 and 1787 the Mughal's conquered Baluchistan but at a terrible price in lives and money and if Persia was not so divided the price would have been much higher. 

The Baluchistan conquest badly weakened the army and nearly bankrupted the state.  This weakness was noted by others and the Maratha-Mughal-Prussian Wars (1790-1805) erupted.  Prussia wishing to expand its holdings in Gujarat formed an alliance with the Maratha and invaded the Mughal Empire.  Alaam refused to appoint stronger leaders for the army such as Mirza's nephew Mirza Shaffi and a series of defeats followed.  Also the Afghans revolted under Ghulam Qadir.  By 1795 Delhi, much of highly fortified Rajputana, Agra and Oudh were under occupation.  Only the Punjab with its always restless Sikh population and parts of Baluchistan were loyal to the Empire.  A truce was signed in 1796 but the Marathas and Prussians didn't leave instead demanding a large indemnity be paid.  Alaam was arrested in a coup, Mirza Shaffi was made General in Chief of the armies and Wazir.

Mirza Shaffi did what he could to restore the professional army but his most important achievement was to separate the Maratha – Prussian alliance by offering the Prussians large tracts of Maratha territory.  Renewed war broke out in 1798 with the Prussians striking south into the Deccan region being a danger all out of proportion to their numbers with their modern siege train and iron discipline.  By 1801 the Prussians were bogged down deep in Marathas territory and the Mughal's had recovered much of their territory.  In the mean time Persia had became a threat once more after recovering from their civil war and began to make noises about recovering Baluchistan while France was also showing signs of emerging from its European distractions.  With all sides exhausted 1802 – 1804 was a period of little large scale combat but rather smaller battles and sieges which did little but to make minor changes in areas of control. 

In 1805 France began to move numbers of troops to Bengal and prepare for war.  The elderly Alaam convinced Mirza Shaffi to seek peace and not repeat his mistake of seeking martial glory at the expense of the empire.  The treaty of Delhi was signed that largely returned the situation to the status quo ante of 1790.  The Prussians were granted control over Gujarat while the Marathas and Mughal's made a defensive alliance which clearly had France in mind.

The reign of Akbar Shah II 1806 – 1837 was focused on internal reforms and recovering from the conflicts Alaam's reign.  The professional army was rebuilt while Mughal control over Baluchistan was strengthened.

Bahadur Shah II while a thoughtful man known as an Urdu Poet also wished to achieve a measure of martial glory.  In 1839 Bahadur gained his chance with Afghan lands in disorder and the exiled Emir of Afghanistan Shuja Shah Durrani invited the Mughals in to restore order and him to the throne.  The Mughals quickly occupied Kabul but to Afghani's Shuja Shah Durrani was a puppet and a revolt in 1842 occurred that saw a massacre of the Mughal Garrison in Kabul; well over 5,000 were lost.  An enraged Bahadur assembled a new army and invaded once more this time declaring the out right annexation of the Afghanistan.  For the rest of Bahadur's reign there were be periodic revolts in Afghanistan with Mughal effective control largely limited to the cities and ever changing alliances with the tribes.  An 1857 uprising in French Bengal received some support from the Mughal government but following its defeat a non-aggression packed was signed with France.  In 1862 the emperor died peacefully in his sleep at the age of 87.               

The new emperor was Fakhruddin I the eldest son of the emperor and his first act was to deal with his 21 other brothers.  These other princes of the blood were settled in Afghanistan and Baluchistan to help solidify Mughal rule in these areas.  The reign of Fakhruddin was largely quiet on external matters and focused on integrating the empire.  1878-1880 marked the great revolt by the Afghani's that was ended by the Battle of Kandahar where a siege of the city by Afghan tribesmen was broken by a Mughal relief army.  The Emperor passed away in 1887 battling a long illness.

The new and current emperor is Akbar Shah III born in 1860.  His reign has been to date uneventful and largely peaceful. (leaving this ruler a largely blank slate incase anyone wants to take them up and fill in details.)